Chapter Summary
In Chapter 20, we focus on the interaction of the political, economic, and social forces within American society during the Gilded Age. This period is characterized by high public interest in local, state, and national elections, political balance between Democrats and Republicans at the national level, and factional and personal feuds within the two parties. Democrats and Republicans in Congress were split on the major national issues: sectional controversies, civil service reform, railroad regulation, tariff policy, and monetary policy. Though Congress debated these issues, factionalism, interest-group politics, and political equilibrium resulted in the passage of vaguely worded, ineffective legislation such as the Pendleton Civil Service Act, the Interstate Commerce Act, and the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Combined with a conservative Supreme Court, weak presidential leadership, and political campaigns that focused on issues of personality rather than issues of substance, these factors caused the postponement of decisions on major issues affecting the nation and its citizens.
The political impasse built up frustration within aggrieved groups in the nation. Southern blacks, who lived under the constant threat of violence and who remained economically dependent on whites, had to endure new forms of social oppression in the form of disfranchisement and "Jim Crow" laws. This oppression was, in turn, upheld by the Supreme Court, which interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment narrowly. Women were frustrated in their attempts to gain the right to vote by the sexist attitudes prevalent in the male-dominated power structures of the era. Aggrieved workers turned to organized labor, to strikes, and, at times, to violence (discussed in Chapter 18). Aggrieved farmers also began to organize. In "Agrarian Unrest and Populism," we examine the reasons for agrarian discontent and trace the manifestation of that discontent from the Grange, through the Farmers' Alliances, to the formation of the Populist party and the drafting of the Omaha platform in 1892.
The depression of the 1890s added to the woes of the United States. President Grover Cleveland failed to deal with the crisis effectively, and an air of crisis settled over the nation. Workers' protests multiplied; the Socialist Party of America, under the leadership of Eugene V. Debs, reorganized; Coxey's Army, demanding a federal jobs program, marched on the nation's capital; and fear of social revolution led business owners and government officials to use brute force to control what they perceived to be radical protest.
As the crisis persisted, the Populist party gained ground but was hampered both by the reluctance of voters to abandon their loyalties to the two major parties and by issues of race. At the national level, Populists, convinced that the "money power" and its imposition of the gold standard on the nation was the root cause of farm distress and the nationwide depression, continued to call for a return of government to the people and crusaded for the "free and unlimited coinage of silver."
The frustrations that had built up in the Gilded Age-an age of transition from rural to urban, from agrarian to industrial society-came to a head in the emotionally charged presidential contest of 1896. An analysis of the issues, outcome, and legacy of this election, which ended the political equilibrium of the age, is offered in the last section of the chapter.
Learning Objectives
- Discuss the characteristics of American politics at the national and state levels during the Gilded Age.
- Discuss the major political and economic issues of the Gilded Age, and examine governmental action on these issues.
- Explain the characteristics of American presidents during the Gilded Age, and discuss how each carried out the duties of his office.
- Explain the social, economic, and political oppression of southern blacks during the late nineteenth century, and discuss the response of the Supreme Court to this oppression.
- Examine the progress of the women's suffrage movement during the Gilded Age.
- Discuss the various forces affecting the lives of southern, midwestern, and western farmers during the late nineteenth century, and explain the social, economic, and political impact of these forces.
- Explain the organizational and ideological development of rural activism from the Grange through the formation of the Populist party and the 1896 presidential election, and discuss the roadblocks encountered by the Populists.
- Explain the causes and consequences of the depression of the 1890s, and evaluate Grover Cleveland's response to the depression.
- Discuss the nature and extent of working-class activism during the era of protest, and explain the reaction of government officials and the public to this activism.
- Analyze the presidential campaign and election of 1896, and explain the political and economic significance of the outcome.
Chapter Outline
- Introduction
The transformation of the nation between 1877 and 1900 created corruption and greed that tugged at the fabric of democracy. Special interests, corruption, and control by the wealthy shaped politics. Rural discontent and a deep economic depression brought changes to the political system. - The Nature of Party Politics
- Cultural-Political Alignments
Between 1875 and 1895, neither major party gained control for any sustained period. Presidential elections were extremely close, and the outcome often hinged on the votes of a few states. - Party Factions
The Republican Party divided into the "Stalwarts," the "Half Breeds," and the "Mugwumps." The Democrats tended to split into white supremacy southerners, immigrant-stock urban machine members, and business-oriented advocates of low tariffs.
- Cultural-Political Alignments
- Politics in the Industrial Age
- Civil Service Reform
Many Americans expressed opposition to the spoils system of government appointments based on party affiliation. The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1882 helped reform the civil service. - Railroad Regulation
Railroad practices prompted reformers to demand government regulation of the industry. The Supreme Court eventually overturned state efforts to control railroads, leading to passage of the Interstate Commerce Act. - Tariff Policy
Republicans supported high tariffs, but Democrats argued that the rates artificially raised prices. Nevertheless, manufacturing interests maintained control of tariff policy. - Monetary Policy
Farmers favored the coinage of silver to increase the amount of currency in circulation. Creditors favored a limited money supply, based on a gold standard. This issue shaped political fights throughout the era. - Legislative Accomplishments
The amount of legislation passed is surprising, and included laws strengthening the government's influence in the national economy.
- Civil Service Reform
- The Presidency Restrengthened
- Hayes, Garfield, and Arthur
The presidents from 1877 to 1890 proved to be less forceful than their predecessors. - Cleveland and Harrison
Grover Cleveland became the first Democratic president since James Buchanan. He used the veto extensively, promoted merit-based civil service, and urged tariff reform. Benjamin Harrison had a Republican majority in Congress, but he alienated many of his supporters. In Cleveland's second term, the president proved unable to resolve the crises he faced.
- Hayes, Garfield, and Arthur
- Limits of Gilded Age Politics
- Violence Against African Americans
Black southerners endured economic and political oppression, and they often suffered the extreme violence characterized by lynching. - Disfranchisement Begins
White politicians sought to limit African American access to the polls through such measures as the poll tax and literacy tests. - Legal Segregation
With the decision in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the South began to institutionalize racism and segregation through the passage of Jim Crow laws. - Woman Suffrage
The women's suffrage movement split into two groups. The National Woman Suffrage Association fought for suffrage on a national level, while the American Woman Suffrage Association worked on the state level.
- Violence Against African Americans
- Agrarian Unrest and Populism
- Sharecropping and Tenant Farming in the South
In the post-Civil War period, southern agriculture was dominated by landlords who employed sharecroppers and tenants. Under the crop-lien system sharecroppers and tenants pledged their crops as collateral to gain operating capital, but often they could not repay the loans. - Hardships in the Midwest and West
Midwestern farmers experienced falling prices for staple crops while expenses remained high. Western farmers and miners suffered due to railroad monopolies. - Grange Movement
As agricultural prices dropped, farmers organized. Oliver H. Kelley helped start the Grange movement, but in the late 1870s its influence declined significantly. - The White Hats
In the Southwest, Hispanics organized a group known as the White Hats to counter the movement of English-speaking ranchers into communal pastureland. - Farmers' Alliances
The Farmers' Alliances constituted a genuine mass movement by 1890. Alliances sponsored political rallies, educational meetings, and cooperative marketing agreements. - Subtreasury Plan
The Alliance proposed the subtreasury plan, in effect a federally sponsored subsidy program, to relieve shortages of cash and credit. The different Alliance groups could not unite, so they failed to bring about any change. - Rise of Populism
In 1890, the Kansas Alliance held a "convention of the People" that formed the People's Party. In 1892, the People's Party, or Populists, developed a comprehensive platform addressing the needs of farmers and laborers. - Election Rhetoric Political language of the day was stirring and often blunt and inflammatory.
- Sharecropping and Tenant Farming in the South
- The Depression of the 1890s
- Continuing Currency Problems
The Panic of 1893 made the currency issue critical. Congress repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 1893, and President Cleveland finally had to accept an offer of gold from J. P. Morgan to stem the run on the United States Treasury. - Effects of a New Economic System In the 1890s, new economic structures that emphasized consolidation emerged. Response to these new corporate institutions and the distress caused by the depression brought a call for reform.
- Continuing Currency Problems
- Depression-Era Protests
- Socialists
With the depression of the 1890s, many workers became socialists. - Eugene V. Debs
The Pullman Strike elevated Eugene V. Debs to a position of leadership within the socialist movement. - Coxey's Army
Jacob Coxey urged the government to issue unbacked paper money to stimulate spending. His "army" of unemployed workers numbered five hundred when it reached Washington, D.C., on April 30, 1894. Congress refused to respond, and the police crushed the protest.
- Socialists
- Populists, the Silver Crusade, and the Election of 1896
- Stifling of Biracial Political Dissent
To stifle support for the Populists and the Alliances, southern Democrats curtailed black voting by requiring poll taxes and literacy tests. - Free Silver
By 1896, the Populists made the free coinage of silver their primary issue. They believed that such a policy would end the privileged position of the rich. - Republican Nomination of McKinley
William McKinley headed a Republican party that supported the gold standard. - William Jennings Bryan
The Democrats chose William Jennings Bryan to head their ticket for free silver. The Populists also nominated Bryan. - Election Results
McKinley won the election in the most lopsided victory since 1872. Free silver did not provide the reform issue that would unite the masses. - The McKinley Presidency
McKinley signed the Gold Standard Act in 1900, he oversaw an increase in the tariff, and he encouraged imperialistic ventures in Latin America and the Pacific.
- Stifling of Biracial Political Dissent
Discussion Questions
- Although no party dominated politics through most of the Gilded Age, did this situation have a positive or negative effect on American government? Why? What effect did the differing factions within the parties have? Why?
- Civil-service reform constituted a significant movement in the Gilded Age. What roadblocks did reformers face in this area? How were these roadblocks overcome? What immediate effect did the reform have? What long-term results came from the change?
- How did economic issues generate protests during the Gilded Age? Specifically, how did Americans respond to the depression of the 1890s? Why did socialism start to attract a large following? What did Coxey's Army hope to accomplish? What became of those goals?
- Populism became a major movement in American politics. Where did Populism find its roots? What did the Populists hope to achieve? How much success did they enjoy during the Gilded Age? (See also Activity Number 1 under "Class Activities" above.)
- What concerns helped make free silver such a major issue? How would free silver have affected the American economy? Who supported free silver? Who opposed it? Why? Why did the free-silver issue eventually lose out to the gold supporters?
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